The Effects Of Media Violence On Mental Health - 829 Words

American college students. They referred to Buckner, Beardslee, Bassuk (2004) who stated that when ethnic minority children and youth are exposed to community violence their mental health is greatly affected. It was hypothesized that exposure to community violence would negatively relate to mental health outcomes. Their sample consisted of 281 African American undergraduate college students in a Midwest University. Their ages ranged from 18 to 24 years. Participants completed Exposure to Community Violence survey (Richters and Saltzman, 1990); the Racial Socialization Questionnaire-Teen (Lesane-Brown, Scottham, Nguyen, and Sellers, 2005); the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Children-Depressive symptomatology (Weissman, Orvaschel, Padian, 1980); and the Aggression Questionnaire (Buss and Perry, 1992). Results indicated that victimization due to community violence is associated with aggressive behaviors and depressive symptomatology. They further cited Cooley-Quille, Boyd, Frantz, Walsh (2001) who stated that victims that experienced direct violence have more psychological consequences than those who experience indirect violence. Banerjee et al. (2015) recommended that providing racial socialization messages and practices at home and at school offer better psychological outcomes in ethnic minority young adults. Ludban (2015) investigated the psychological well-being of college students and the factors that impact it. Ludban (2015) referred toShow MoreRelatedMental Health and Violence Essay1563 Words   |  7 PagesAre people with mental illness more violent than the rest of the population? If you only listen to the media, you are sure to answer, â€Å"Yes†. However, most of us know that the media is not the most reliable source of information. In fact, the media has a Tendency to bend the facts, plucking out stories and statistics that colour the truth in order to popularize their Medium. Most people who have mental health problems experience symptoms, and gradually recover. They may pick Up where they leftRead MoreMental Illness And Its Effects On The Media Essay1324 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Mental illness is often wrongly portrayed in the United States’ media creating stigmatization and misrepresentation. Mental illness â€Å"refers to a wide range of mental disorders that affect your mood, thinking and behavior† (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2015). Examples of disorders include anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Any â€Å"negative attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors are called stigma† (Wilson et al., 2016, p. 2) and stigma can contributeRead MoreDomestic Violence And Other Lifetime Disturbance1590 Words   |  7 PagesDomestic violence and other lifetime disturbance can have significant mental health effects. Although symptoms often recover or decline with increased safety and social support, maltreatment may sometimes have longer-term health and mental health effects. The disturbing effects of abuse can affect an individual’s ability to access safety, restore from trauma, and to pursue lifetime go als. In addition to that, living with mental health disorders or addiction upsurges a person’s risk of experiencingRead MoreThe Effects Of Movies On Child Psychology930 Words   |  4 PagesDetrimental effects of movies on child psychology After the advent of first motion picture cameras in 1890s, movies have become one of our best ways to alleviate stress and manifest feelings and concepts. Movies are the mirror of a society that reflects social practices, incidents and imperfections. Movies are one of the effective means to sow the seeds of aspirations, ideas for making the utopian fantasy to reality. However, in recent years, in order to allure more viewers, movies have followedRead MoreThe Stigma Of Mental Illness1212 Words   |  5 Pagesbizarre statements heard by people experiencing symptoms of mental illness. Patients suffering a physiological illness rarely hear these words, but they have begun to sound like a broken record to the mentally ill. Everyone sympathizes with the stomach, the liver, the eye, and many other organs in the body when they begin to malfunction, but no one sympathizes with the brain. It is unimaginable and almost abominable for the brain to get sick. Mental illness is probably the mo st misconstrued and trivializedRead MoreEffects Of Prison Overcrowding1345 Words   |  6 PagesMy paper will discuss the problems and a few of the effects that prison overcrowding causes towards the inmates and the guards. I will first address the issue of violence that prison overcrowding causes. My next point will be the health of the inmates discussing both their physical and mental while in overcrowded prisons. Lastly I will discuss the physical and mental health of the correctional officers and how the job could lead to correctional officers having issues in their private life. PrisonRead MoreDo You Think Violent Video Game Exposure Effect The Behavior Of Children?1244 Words   |  5 Pagesgame exposure effect the behavior of children? Introduction Studies show that exposure to violent video games affects the behavior of children.Some have vandalized, beat someone up, took part in bullying someone.As many as 97% of US kids age 12-17 play video games, contributing to the $21.53 billion domestic video game industry. More than half of the 50 top-selling video games contain violence. Violent video games have been blamed for school shootings, increases in bullying, and violence towards womenRead MoreViolent Programs on Television Lead to Aggressive Behavior by Children1038 Words   |  5 PagesNational Institute of Mental Health, along with other reputable health organizations has collected data that connects media violence, with violent acts. Conclusions deduced from this data prove that violent programs on television lead to aggressive behavior by children and teenagers who watch those programs. Television violence affects young people of all ages, all socio-economic levels, and all levels of intelligence. Todays children view vast amounts of violence on television. A steadyRead More VIOLENT PROGRAMS ON TELEVISION LEAD TO AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR BY CHILDREN1015 Words   |  5 Pagesthe National Institute of Mental Health, along with other reputable health organizations has collected data that connects media violence, with violent acts. Conclusions deduced from this data prove that violent programs on television lead to aggressive behavior by children and teenagers who watch those programs. Television violence affects young people of all ages, all socio-economic levels, and all levels of intelligence. Today’s children view vast amounts of violence on television. A steady dietRead More Media Violence Essay1684 Words   |  7 Pagesis right for their child to have access to this sort of violence: the kind found in most video games, television shows, and movies all over the world. But honestly, does it make a difference in the child’s development as a productive member of society, and if so, can a parent really do anything about it? These are the questions that researchers of the subject hope to answer conclusively In order to understand how media violence has an effect on children, different variables must first be examined

Sociology Is The Study Of Individuals In Groups In A...

Sociology is the study of individuals in groups in a systematic way. It is an intricate set of styles and approaches trying to perceive society. (Burgess and Murcott, 2001). As a result, many perceptions have arisen over the last centuries. Many methodologies have been debated and discussed. Challenging these assumptions will in turn, cause for quantitative and qualitative based research on the struggle to gain a firm grip on how society works. As a result, there are different sociological perspectives that hold valued theories in society. In this essay three perspectives will be assessed. How society operates in the view of these perspectives. Also, scrutinizing theories on the subject ‘crime and deviance’ aiming to outline how each†¦show more content†¦Marx’s argues that laws are passed by state government, reflecting the interests of ruling class ideology, rather an authoritarian consensus. As follows a false commitment is shared by society as a whole considering laws only benefit the ruling minority. (Haralambos and Holborn, 1980). A classic case study portraying this argument is Stuart Hall’s ‘policing the crisis’. Hall raises the argument of ‘mugging’; a new term from America that was used by the media to label an attempted robbery, murder scene in 1972 In Britain. He argued the term is now affixed to any type of crime particularly applied at black youth. From that point onwards it becomes symptomatic of a ‘moral panic’. (Hall et al, 1978). Furthermore, Halls statistics show the term ‘mugging’ appearing 60 times in newspapers the following year. (Hall et al, 1978) It can be said that the media’s moral panics, run by the ideology of the ruling class, camouflaged the economic crisis that emerged during the 1970’s. Subsequently, the moral panics allowed the state to enforce policing methods legitimising random stops targeting black youths. Thus, more control over the subject class. Social action theories offer a drastic alternative view on society to the above. Interpretative perspective emphasis is on individuals action, rather than the deterministic approach structured by social systems, social action focuses on small scaleShow MoreRelatedSociology Of Education As A Social Institution1489 Words   |  6 PagesSociology of education The sociology of education is a diverse and vibrant subfield that features theory and research focused on how education as a social institution is affected by and affects other social institutions and the social structure overall, and how various social forces shape the policies, practices, and outcomes of schooling (www.thoughtco.com). Sociology of education is the systematic study of educational system within the broader social context. At the heart of sociology is a specialRead MoreSociology as a Science Essay1149 Words   |  5 Pages Sociology emerged in the eighteenth century after a period of intense cultural, social and economic changes. As people began to try to understand these changes, there came a period called the Enlightenment. This is also considered by Hamilton (1992) to be a â€Å"time characterised by the development of distinctively modern forms of thought about society and the realm of the social.† The Enlightenment encouraged a new way of thinking marked by application of reason, experienceRead MoreSociology and the Education System in America Essay1154 Words   |  5 Pagesdefinition of Sociology is that it is the study of human societies through the synthesis of theoretical analysis and controlled research, focusing on the social patterns and forces that influence humans. The study of sociology is the issues, concepts, investigations, and more importantly, the systematic study of relationships among people. While the study of sociology focuses on groups, or society as a whole, it should not exclude an emphasis on individuals because individuals forms groups and groupsRead MoreThe Forest, The Trees, And The One Thing By Allan G. Johnson1613 Words   |  7 Pagesstatus that every person falls into. To escape it would be impossible as society itself is the interweaving lives, systems, beliefs and ideas that every individual contributes to and experiences. Without a contextual perspective, comprehending one’s place in society while in the chaos of personal and widespread clashes is challenging. Sociology and, thus, the sociological perspective allows people to understand the threads that connect them to someone else or to the institutes that surround themRead MoreWhat Is the Importance of Studying Sociology?967 Words   |  4 Pagesstudying sociology? Of the various social sciences, sociology seems to be the youngest. It is gradually developing. Still it has remarkable progress. Its uses are recognized widely today. In modern times, there is a growing realization of the importance of the scientific study of social phenomena and the means of promoting what Prof. Giddings calls human adequacy (human welfare). The study of sociology has a great value especially in modern complex society. Some of the uses of sociology are asRead MoreSociology : Defining Human Behavior961 Words   |  4 PagesSociology: Defining Human Behavior In this paper we will discuss how sociology helps us to understand how human behavior is influenced by social and cultural forces and also, how society and culture are influenced by individual behavior. Sociology provides ways to understand why and how society functions. We ask ourselves how sociology helps us to understand how human behavior is guided by social and cultural forces. First of all, let us look at how sociology is defined. Sociology is definedRead MoreThe Core Concepts Of Sociology1578 Words   |  7 PagesThe core concepts of sociology are a combination of original theories with improved sociological approaches that build upon them over time. Sociology utilizes three main theories to approach the study of society with different focus points that result in different outcomes. Furthermore, as stated by Robert Faris and William Form from britannica â€Å"The early schools of thought each presented a systematic formulation of sociology that implied possession of exclusive truth and that involved a convictionRead MoreThe Importance Of Interpersonal Skills On The Workplace1695 Words   |  7 Pagesbehavior is â€Å"a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations, for applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness† (Robbins 10). 3. How does systematic study contribute to our understanding of OB? Fundamental consistencies predict the behavior of employees in the workplace. In organizational behavior, a systematic study is used to make accurate predictions. A systematic study looks at relationshipsRead MoreSociology : Defining Human Behavior948 Words   |  4 Pages Sociology: Defining Human Behavior Sociology helps us to understand how human behavior is influenced by social and cultural forces and also, how society and culture are influenced by individual behavior. Providing ways to understand why and how society functions, we ask ourselves how sociology helps us to understand how human behavior is guided by social and cultural forces. First of all, let us look at the meaning of sociology: â€Å"the systematic study of the development, structure, interactionRead MorePsychological Perspectives On Studying Juvenile Delinquency And Disorder Behavior1642 Words   |  7 Pagessociological approaches to studying juvenile delinquency are necessary. This essay starts with outlining and defining disorderly behaviour and juvenile delinquency. Then, it will look at the work of Eysenck, the Cambridge Study of Delinquent Development research which was a longitude study and the Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential theory by Farrington, all fit in psychological approach; studying the connection between personality and disorder. It will then look at Sociological approach by looking

Demographics of the Global Economy

Question: Write an essay about the demographics of the global economy. Answer: The Changing Demographics of the Global Economy: The Global Economy is referred to the world economy. This is considered as international exchange of services and goods, which is expressed in monetary units of account. The U.S. ruled the world trade picture and the world economy by accounting almost 40% of world economic activity in 1960s. However, by 2012, this economic activity has decreased to 23%. In this global economy, U.S. multinationals ruled the half of the world and the international business scene. This economics of the communist world was centrally planned. This economics was limited to Western international business. This economic structure is also observed in other developing countries. In contrast, the share of the developing nations in the world economy is increasing. It is expected that, by 2020, the economic activity will rise to more than 60% (Dunning, 2012). This output of these developing countries in the account of the global economy is gradually increasing from 1960. The cross-border flows show a sustained gr owth in foreign direct investment (FDI). For example, it was seen that U.S. firms had accounted for approximate two-thirds of worldwide FDI flows. Recently, the account of the U.S. has decreased to less than one-fifth of worldwide FDI flows. This pattern is observed in the other developing countries. In contrast, the share of FDIs account has risen in developing countries. For example, China has become famous destination for FDI. The other popular FDI destinations are UK, Canada, China and USA. A multinational enterprise is referred to the business, which has productivity in two or more countries. It is observed that the number of mini-multinationals and non-U.S. multinationals has increased since 1960s (Wild et al., 2014). Most of the former Communist nations in Asia and Europe are now committed to free market economies and democratic politics. This communist collapse in Eastern Europe exhibits a representative of investment and export opportunities for Western business. It shows n ew opportunities in the International business in spite of continued Communist control. The economic development in China represents major risks and opportunity. With this, signs of growing totalitarian and unrest tendencies are observed in some countries. For example, Latin America and Mexico also represent tremendous opportunities both as sources and as markets of production and materials. It is observed that the FDI has increased from $2 billion to $100 billion in China in between 1983 and 2010 (Beamish, 2013). In China, there are many strong companies, which can give tough competition to Western firms. The opinion of the author is based on the changes in the world economy system along with globalization. Authors personal opinion will be to know the reasons behind this change. Debate on Globalization: Globalization is referred to as shift from a centre to more interdependent and integrated global economy. The debate has stared between anti- globalization protestors at all meeting of a global institution. According to protestors, globalization is altering the world in a negative way. Critics feel that jobs are being lost to low-wage nations due to globalization. According to the supporters, cross border investment and increased trade give rise to low prices in services and goods. It leads to greater economic growth with more jobs and higher consumer income. In this debate critics believe that the free trade supports firms from growing nations to shift manufacturing facilities registered in less developed countries with lax labor and environmental regulations (Killing, 2012). The free trade supporters observed that strict labor standards and tough environmental regulation go together with progress in economy. Additionally the foreign investment helps a nation to increase its standar ds. While critics are disappointed in the fact that due to the globalization the economic power is altering from national governments towards super national organization, like, the United Nations, the European Union (EU), the World Trade Organization (WTO). However according to the supporters the organizational power is limited to states-nations agree to grant. The organizational power lies in their capability of making some nations to follow some actions. The critics state that the distance between poor and rich has become wider. So, the globalization is not distributed equally (Ball McCulloch, 2012). Whereas supporters state that governmental actions have showed limited improvement in economy in most of the countries. The author supports the globalization. Some undeveloped nations can raise their economy by reducing barrier of investment and trade and also through implementing trading policies based on economies of free market. For example, McDonald is growing in Japan and other countries due to globalization. Economic System: An economic system is referred to as a system, which deals with resource allocation, production, distribution and exchange of services and goals in a provided geographical area or a society. This system is connected with political ideology. The countries, which are focused in individual goals in the system, have market-based economies. The dominant collective goals are observed in the economic system of the countries with common state-ownership. Individualism and democracy go together like totalitarianism and collectivism. Generally, three types of economic systems are observed, which are, mixed, planned or command and market. Command economy system is completely government based. In this system, rather than free market, government decides the production of the goods, the quantity of the production and the price of the goods, which will be opened for sale. It is a key characteristic of communist society (Cavusgil et al., 2014). This system is completely state-owned. Government distri butes the resources for the good of the society. This system has a tendency to stagnate as it has low incentives to be efficient and control costs. A market economy is a system, where the decisions regarding distribution, production and investment are taken by market. In this system, the prices, demand and supply of services and good are decided in a free economy system. Government encourages in fair and free competition among the private sectors. Market economies are also two types, social and liberal. Mixed economy is the system, which deals with the combinations of various economy systems, like, economic interventionism, free markets, private ownership, public ownership and economic planning. In general, in this system, the private economy is controlled by the provision of government. Mixed economy is more practiced in India and China. In China two systems model is observed. One of them is capitalist, which is similar to state-planned economies with the combination of institution al structures. The other system is political system, which is under control of communist party. This leads to weak legal system and lack of transparency. In India, democratic political system and economic freedom are observed and it is gradually opening towards FDI mixed economy is more practiced in these countries because, this economy has strong concern on free market principles, and still it depends upon the government (Jenkins, 2013). According to authors opinion, mixed economy is better because it involves the opinion of two systems. The free market involves with the variety of products. While, the government helps to deal with certain matters ranging from environment to education, which are overlooked by the private organizations. The government also helps to nurture a newly grown company and to establish that company in the global economy. Culture: Culture is defined as a system of norms and values, which are shared in between same groups or different group of people. It helps to modify the structure of living. Norms are referred to certain cultural products like traditions, customs and values, which represent the basic knowledge of individuals on others activity and their vision. According to certain sociologists, norms are informal understandings, which deal with the behaviors of the individuals in the society. An example of norm is shaking hand during introduction between two people. Elements of norms are laws, taboos, mores, and folkways. Folkways are norms, which deal with casual or routine interaction in daily life. For example, certain food habits or dressing sense in different cultures. If an individual belched in America during dinner in presence of others, then that incident is referred as breaking the folkways. According to American culture belching in dinner table is not good (Folsom et al., 2012). After these broke n folkways, there are no legal or moral consequences. Mores are the norms, which are observed in the society. It refers to the functionality of the society, like religious doctrines. For example, the parents with more cannot allow the live together relationship between their daughter and her boyfriend. According to them, only married couple can stay together. If their daughter does this activity, then it will be referred as violation against more. Taboos are the norms, which are strongly connected with certain cultures. Violation of those norms gives rise to extreme condition at that culture. Sometimes those violators are thrown out of the society. For example, in Muslim culture pork eating is a taboo. Pigs are not staying in clean area, But Muslim strictly follows the cleanliness I their daily life. Law is referred to as certain norms, which are written by the leaders of the society, and it is implicated in the society through a law enforcement society. For example, in many countri es drink and drive is not allowed according to the law. If anyone breaks the rill, then according to the law, that person will be fined or imprisoned. Values provide the place, where, the norms of the society are put forward and followed with respect. For example, in a scholarly family, the parents will show more values on learning, achievement, hard work (Enderwick, 2013). According to authors opinion norm is better. It helps to understand one culture and its significance. In this modern age, it is very necessary to be globalized. It will help to modify the life and to build the career. Therefore, through knowing the norms of other cultures, people can overcome the cultural barriers. Culture determinism: Culture is referred to as the cumulative deposition of beliefs, experiences and knowledge of a particular society or nation. Cultural determinism is the belief where the present culture will determine the behavioral and emotional levels of the life. The communication between two culturally diverged people is the example of culture determinism. Many determinants are associated with cultural determinism, which are, social structure, language, education, economic in addition, political philosophies and religion (Moran et al., 2014). Social structure is the structure of the society, which differs due to the cultural variance. For example, social structure of certain nation is completely religious based, whereas, work based social structure in observed in somewhere. Language is the nonverbal or verbal expressions through which people communicate. Cultural determinism gives rise to variation in language. A nation with different language is also the resource of different culture, like Spain . Education is the way, through which people learn. It differs with the culture. For example, an education level in a nation sometimes determines the economy of that nation. Political and economic philosophies vary to a great extent due to the culture determinism. For example, in North Korea, communist ideologies are ruling as political parties (Vaara et al., 2012). Religion is referred to as spiritual belief of an individual. Culture differs with various religions like, Hinduism, Muslim, Christian are observed. For example, here, the author is from Pakistan. However, presently, the author is flowing British culture due to migration. Therefore, the cultural determinism affects the author in his life. The religion and language are completely different in Britain as compared to Pakistan. The author is not able to communicate in his language with the office staffs. The education and political system are also different in between these two cultures. British culture follows must advanced education system. Moreover, the social structure differs a lot. It has great impact in the life of the author. Transaction cost: FDI or foreign direct investment deals with the direct investment of the firm in a foreign country with new facilities to create new market. License or exporting works for existed products in the foreign country. Therefore, FDI occurs instead of licensing and exporting. Exporting is a process through which a product is shipped to the country with high demand from its home country (Shenkar, 2012). For example, the Arabian countries are richer with petroleum. Therefore, this product is exported to other countries due to the demands. Transaction costs are those costs, which are related to the exportation of the goods. Licensing is referred to the right of a product while introduction into the foreign country. For example, when McDonald is introduced in Japan, then it is necessary that the company should be licensed. In licensing, there are many costs like, transportation, trading costs etc. FDI deals with those barriers through quotas or import tariffs. Therefore, FDI is better than lic ensing. For example if a Fiat car is introduced in foreign country, then the licensing will cost more. However, that cost will be minimized through FDI. According to author, FDI is good because it stimulates the economic development of the target country. International trade becomes very easy due to this direct investment. Due to FDI, the foreign investors are making new companies in the target country. It is providing more job opportunities. According to author, FDI is not good because it hinders domestic investment, which is a great disadvantage. FDI is related with more nations and their political factors. Therefore, there are certain risks in FDI due to the political factors. FDI influences the exchange rate negatively, which affects the economic system of a nation. References: Ball, D. A., McCulloch Jr, W. H. (2012). International business. Beamish, P. (2013). Multinational Joint Ventures in Developing Countries (RLE International Business). Routledge. Cavusgil, S. T., Knight, G., Riesenberger, J. R., Rammal, H. G., Rose, E. L. (2014). International business. Pearson Australia. Dunning, J. H. (2012). International Production and the Multinational Enterprise (RLE International Business) (Vol. 12). Routledge. Enderwick, P. (Ed.). (2013). Multinational Service Firms (RLE International Business). Routledge. Folsom, R. H., Gordon, M. W., Spanogle, J. A., Fitzgerald, P. L., Van Alstine, M. P. (2012). International business transactions: a problem-oriented coursebook. Jenkins, R. (2013). Transnational Corporations and Uneven Development (RLE International Business): The Internationalization of Capital and the Third World. Routledge. Killing, P. (2012). Strategies for Joint Venture Success (RLE International Business) (Vol. 22). Routledge. Moran, R. T., Abramson, N. R., Moran, S. V. (2014). Managing cultural differences. Routledge. Shenkar, O. (2012). Beyond cultural distance: Switching to a friction lens in the study of cultural differences. Journal of International Business Studies, 43(1), 12-17. Vaara, E., Sarala, R., Stahl, G. K., Bjrkman, I. (2012). The impact of organizational and national cultural differences on social conflict and knowledge transfer in international acquisitions. Journal of Management Studies, 49(1), 1-27. Wild, J., Wild, K. L., Han, J. C. (2014). International business. Pearson Education Limited.

Irrational Thinking Essays - Logical Fallacies, Fallacy,

Irrational Thinking To understand this concept you must first know the definition of the term fallacy. Fallacy is defined as deception, an error in logic, or an often plausible argument using false or invalid inference. In this course we learned that there were eight fallacies: perfection, approval, should, overgeneralization, causation, helplessness, and catastrophic causation. In this paper I will attempt to explain each of them. The fallacy of perfection is when a person that thinks that everything must be perfect. It can be as innocent as someone who must keep their things neat and clean or as extreme as a person cleans constantly because they don't feel that anything is clean enough. In their eyes, everything must be flawless. A person with this fallacy may most commonly be known as a perfectionist. One of their setbacks is that they are some busy perfecting that they don't have time to do other things. The fallacy of approval is when a person that insures that they say and do is acceptable to others. They are people pleasers, willing to do anything to make everyone happy and often say what the listeners want to hear. They are sometimes known as two-faded because they are on everyone's side of an argument. Most often affected by this fallacy are adolescents because they thrive on peer approval. A downfall is that the individual is so consumed with pleasing other the it may be difficult for them to find self-fulfillment. The fallacy of should is when a person confuses what they want with what should be. They never understand why things are not going their way. This fallacy, unlike most of the others, can sometimes be beneficial, in moderation, in careers fields such as law enforcement and politics. In these field, in general, what the individual want usually will benefit public. On the other in hand, an extreme fallacy of should can be disasterist. One such example in history is Nazi Germany. Hitler's fallacy of should lead to the death of thousands of people. The fallacy of over-generalization uses the expressions "always" and "never" frequently. These people often times have trouble recognizing the things people do "often" especially if it is some thing position. For instance in an argument they may use statements like, " You never help me with the kids." or "You always leave the toilet seat up. As a consequence of this fallacy the person that they are arguing with may become considerably defective. The fallacy of helplessness is when a person feels that they have no control over any situation. They feel that they are hindered by obstacles and they have say in the outcome. The example that stands of in my mind is when African-American males say that they are oppressed by "the man" ( referring to white people). This is their justification for not being able to hold a steady job and any other unjust treatment they receive. What a lot of these people with this fallacy fell to realize is their part in the injustice (i.e. police record, excessively tardy to work) Another pitfall of this fallacy is that it leads to stereotypes and prejudice. The fallacies of causation and catastrophic causation with the exception of catastrophic causation is too the extreme. The word causation means that the person feels that everything that can go wrong will go wrong. They also feel that their thoughts and feelings cause negative emotion. I, personal, have never met anyone with either of these fallacies but I would think that a effect of having one of them would damage them socially because of their fear of an unfavorable outcome. Each fallacy affects people a different way but by knowing and understand each of them I have a better understanding for why act or react the way that they do. This was the most beneficial concept I learned in this course.

buy custom Diabetes in Children essay

buy custom Diabetes in Children essay Over the years up to date, there has been some research carried out on the cure and diagnostic of diabetes all over the world. Several attempts are being made to bring out the cure for this killer disease in the world that kills all people of all ages. There has been a research on how to improve on the degree of managing diabetes in young people due to inadequate childcare and health information. The research had to review current information about diabetes in children and young people. It also had to develop a diary of in order to monitor the glucose sample properly. Furthermore, the research had to verify the relevance of the current information pack in management of diabetes. Monitored dose description and adherence are maintained. A comparison and contrast of the new and current study pack will be done order to give a good pathway in the future for other researchers to base their findings. The research is a base for future research agenda based on the age appropriate child-centered information, across a range of conditions. The result of the research would be of high importance. It has incorporated all the major players in the health sectors. Exhaustive use of children, healthcare professionals and families at various level of their requirement provide a good platform for research. The findings will be able to help the clinical teams in managing of diabetes through relevant dissemination of drugs and dosage to young people. It will ensure that researchers ask children relevant questions during an examination. The findings will also help the nurses in ensuring that they use proper techniques in handling small and young people. Te findings will give valuable evidence on the process of measurement of the trials that could be used for future research work. The findings could also help young people to manage their health with or without their parents. The findings complement other children diabetes studies with other team findings. It will contribute to developing wider evidence base in the study and treatment of type 1 diabetes. Several plans laid to ensure that the research findings will come to be useful in future. Clinical trials underlined in the research will ensure that there is a well placed randomization service and data base management and development as per required by the research objectives. The research team had comprised of professionals. Everyone had experienced thorough research on the field of medicine. Team spirit played a major role in ensuring that the research was achievable. Every person had an idea from a different field. Communication between members was of high importance and everything is in order to facilitate the communication process. Members in the research team planned and accorded different roles and levels of work to maintain high quality research. There was a room of co-applicants in the research team to assist in the woork based on adequate ability. Supervision is carried either face-to-face on weekly and daily basis or through a website. This will be characterized by increased efficiency and effectiveness of the research work. There were also groups to ensure people work together. This also brought together other group leaders to ensure they offered their expertise during group meetings. The trial management and steering committee would often meet to guide the children, parents and health workers how to cope with the research in six months. The trial management committee also gave advice on other group members how to be relevant to the research. The work of data monitoring and evaluation committee is to ensure that data obtained is of high quality. It has to liaise with the adverse reports committee. Additional stakeholders incorporated to ensure constant advice from people who have worked with children and parents. The stakeholders ensured that the research is achievable and successful. All co-applicants contributed heavily in the laying down of research procedures. Most of the co-applicants had vast knowledge in the area of study and the entire research. Specialists in communication and children would ensure the development of information pack in terms of content and intellectual structure for dispatching to the media. The research based its findings and knowledge on various references. The well renowned books for study in the field of medicine and specifically in diabetes provide an amble platform for research. In this case, emphasis was based on children and young people since diabetes in children is the main objective of this study. Buy custom Diabetes in Children essay

Guide to Doing Laundry in College

Guide to Doing Laundry in College Doing laundry in college can be a challenge - but it can also be easier than you might think. Just remember: you dont have to be psychic to do laundry correctly. But you do have to read, so just check the labels if youre not sure. Preparation Read the labels of anything unique. Have a fancy dress? Nice button-down shirt? New bathing suit? Pants or skirt made of a funky material? Anything that seems a little out of the ordinary might need extra care. A quick read of the tag instructions (usually found by the neck or waist or on the bottom inside left-side seam of shirts) can help prevent disasters. Anything needing special care or a certain water temperature should be separated from the rest.Sort out anything new. If you just bought a new, bright-red t-shirt, made tie-dye shirts with some friends, or have any other clothes that have dark (like black, blue, or brown) or bright (like bright pink or green) colors, these kinds of clothes might bleed (i.e., have their colors seep out and stain the rest of your clothes). Wash them separately on their first wash - but they should be good to join their friends for the next go-around.Separate clothes by color. Put the darks (blacks, blues, browns, jeans, dark towels, etc.) in one color and the lights in another (whites, creams, tans, pastels, etc.). Some colors, like light gray, can go in either pile, so feel free to move those around to make your loads around the same size. Washing Put one load of similarly colored clothes (e.g., darks or lights but not both) in the machine. A few rules here: dont squish them in. Dont pack them in. Just kinda throw them in so theres enough room for things to move and swim around once the machine fills with water. If you pack things in, they wont get clean and the detergent gets stuck on everything.Put in the soap. Read the instructions on the box or bottle. Dont necessarily use one full cap or one full cup; detergent companies like your money so they make it easy to put too much soap in. Put enough in for one load, which may be only half a cup. Read, read, read to find out how much you really need.Set the water temperature. A good rule of thumb to follow: Darks need cold water, lights need warm water, sheets and towels need hot water. Easy cheesy.Hit start! Drying Separate anything that cant go in the dryer. This may be something you found by reading the labels. It may also be things like bras with underwires, fancy underwear, bathing suits, or sweaters that would otherwise shrink from the heat.Put your clothes in the dryer. Take your clothes from the washer and put them in the dryer. If you want, you can add a dryer sheet; doing so will prevent static cling and make your clothes smell fantastic. Youll have to guesstimate how much time your clothes will need. If you have stuff that you dont want wrinkled, pull it out when its still a tad wet and hang it up. If you dont care, just dry it until everything is super dry and ready to go. Tips If you have nasty stains (like wine or dirt), try rubbing something on it before washing your clothes. (You can find stain-removal products near the laundry soap in any store.)If you love how clean clothes smell, consider putting a dryer sheet in each of your drawers, putting one between your towels, or hanging a few randomly in your closet.Because college laundry rooms have so many machines, consider having a night where you and your friends hang out and do something to pass the time while washing clothes. That way everyones clothes get clean and you can at least have some fun in the process.

An analysis of the labour market conditions within setting bussiness Essay

An analysis of the labour market conditions within setting bussiness. And a critical reflection on your own internal strengths and weaknesses, as well as the ex - Essay Example Although the features of labour market conditions vary due to market forces, plurastic and regionalistic factors with socio-economic influences, they could be broadly be divided into four main divisions which are as follows: - This market is chiefly constituted of medium and large-scale commercial agricultural activities, including cultivation and distribution of crops. Proprietorship or partnership firms chiefly own them. Most of the workers engaged in the formal rural markets are unskilled and semi-educated and their main activities are in the areas of crops and agricultural produce. This market segment is chiefly indulging in small-scale operations involving self employed persons along with the assistance of unpaid family members. Like formal rural markets, this segment is also characterized by unskilled or semi-skilled labour force who are involved in small-scale activities with low productivity and hence, low level of wages. The main functions in informal rural markets are in the raising of exportable cash crops. This segment consists chiefly of Medium and Large Scale enterprises producing commercial and non-tradable goods using a combination of skilled and semi-skilled workers. They constitute private or state owned enterprises where the wage levels are regulated by the Government and by local state laws. The requirements of Minimum Wages and Allowances and benefits to workmen are also applicable in this segment. Since this market segment is in the regulated area, the workers and staff are protected by the Trade Labour Unions, who play an important role in labour matters, and trade unionism activities are also present in this segment This segment comprises of self-employed professionals in the urbanized sector and represents privately owned enterprises. They are mainly dealing with manufacturing, trading and distribution of non-tradable items and this segment is, more often than not, in the unregulated sector. The wages and job security in these

Ulysses S. Grant Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Ulysses S. Grant - Research Paper Example At the college, he established repute as a daring and proficient horseman (Rice 12). During the Mexican-American conflict, Grant served under Generals Taylor Zachary and Scott Winfield, participating in the battles ofPalo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterrey, and Veracruz. Grant was brevetted twice for gallantry: at Chapultepec and Molino Del Rey and. On 31st July, 1854, Grant quitted from the military (Crow 56). On 24th April, 1861, 10 days following the collapse of Fort-Sumter, Commander Grant landed in Springfield, Illinois, together with a syndicate of men Grant had nurtured (Rice 12). The governor sensed that a West-Point man might be positioned to worthier use and assigned him as the 21st Illinois-Infantry colonel (effective 17th June, 1861) (Lagueux 47). In 7THAugust, Grant was chosenas the brigadier-general-of-volunteers (Rice 12).Ulysses Grant presented the Union-Army its leading major conquest of the American-Civil-War throughapprehending Fort of Henry, Tennessee, in 6thFebr uary of1862, and afterward Fort of Donelson, in which Grant demanded the well-known expressions of "unconditional surrender" as well as apprehended a Confederate military (Crow 56). ... river fortress, Mississippi, during 1863 is deemed to be the extremely masterful within soldierly history; it divided the Coalition in 2, and it embodied the 2ndmajor Confederate military to yield to Grant (Rice 12).Grant Ulysses was the deliverer of Union-forces besieged at Chattanooga, Tennessee, firmly beating Bragg Braxton and opening away to Atlanta, and Confederacy’s core (Crow 56). His disposition to fight as well ascapacity to win fascinated President Lincoln, who selected him as lieutenant-general, a novel rank newlysanctioned by the AmericanAssembly with Grant on mind—in 2 March, 1864 (Bunting 101). On 12thMarch, Grant Ulysses became the general-in-chief of the entireUnited States’ army (Perret 34). In March of 1864, Grant positioned Major Genera Sherman v William in immediate control of all Western forces and relocated his head office to Virginia whereinGrant turned his mind to the long- hindered Union endeavor to terminate the Robert Lee’s army ; his secondary aim was to seize the Confederate’s capital, Richmond, Virginia (Eicher 219). Despite the substantial losses, Grant established a nine-month restriction of Lee's militarywithin the city(Bunting 101). Grant dispatched Sheridan Philip to the Valley of Shenandoah to beat the Jubal’s army early and terminate the farms furnishing Lee (Perret 34). Grant's persistent pressure decisively forced Robert Lee to abandon Richmond and yield at Appomattox Court-House on 9th April, 1865 (Crow 56). Grant presented generous terms, which did plentiful to lessen the tensions amid the forces and safeguard some Southern pride semblancethat would be required to resolve the opposing sides (Eicher 219). In a few months, the American Civil-War was commendably over, though minor engagements carried on until Smith

Chinese Foreign Policy & National Security Essay Example for Free

Chinese Foreign Policy National Security Essay The China-South Korea axis is perhaps the most overlooked variable in the strategic environment of Northeast Asia. For nearly five decades their relationship was characterized by war, lack of dialogue and non-recognition; then, over a period of some three years, this situation gave away to fully normalized and amiable relations in 1992. Rapprochement between Seoul and Beijing in 1992 opened one of the first frontiers of the post-Cold War thaw in the region, and future security will hinge at least partly on this core relationship. In this context, Cha analyzes the evolution of Sino-South Korean reconciliation, and argues that the South Koreas engagement policy from the late 1980s in the political, economic, and cultural arenas played a major part in eliciting unprecedented cooperation from Beijing, however, its initiatives alone were not a sufficient condition to prompt this cooperation. A prior and necessary condition was a change in the strategic context surrounding China and the Korean Peninsula that raised both the benefits of cooperation and the costs of non-cooperation; the end of Cold War . In the context of security environment in Northeast Asia, South Koreas success in engaging China has implications for future security on the Korean Peninsula. On balance, the axis is a stabilizing factor but not without its share of future challenges. With this in mind, the key questions of the article include: (1) How does one explain the growth of cooperation between China and South Korea? (2) To what extent has Sino-ROK rapprochement been the result of successful strategies on the part of South Korea to engage China? (3) What are the implications on North Korea? For a quarter-century after the Korean War, Sino-South Korean relations sat at the intersection of the global East-West conflict and the Sino-Soviet split, making any hint of cooperation impossible.1 However, since the middle 1980s, Sino-South Korean relationship has moved from being sworn enemies and opposed combatants in the Korean War, to being potential economic partners (but still strategic adversaries), and fully normalized diplomatic relations in 1992. Three key drivers propelled the change in the relationship: (1) the transformation of strategic environment concomitant to the end of Cold War, which established the baseline for post-war interaction. In this context, Sino-Soviet reconciliation was a significant factor in Chinese calculations to normalize with Seoul. In particular, the end of Sino-Soviet rivalry reduced in Chinese minds the strategic consequences of losing North Korea to Moscow, and made opening to South Korea more feasible. Furthermore, in South Koreas view, China had evolved from being a revisionist power to being a status quo one, in the degree to which Beijing emphasized unification or peace maintenance as the security priority for the Peninsula. Unification was associated with Chinas revolutionary power and support for North Korea to overthrow the South the essence of Chinas one Korea policy of the Cold War. On the other hand, peace maintenance implied stability outcome for Korea by recognizing South Korea and opposing provocative acts by the North which might upset the unstable peace on the Peninsula. (2) Domestic change in China concomitant to Deng Xiaopings modernization reforms, and subsequent separation of politics from economics. The initial economic trade was largely indirect, transacted through third-party intermediaries or South Korean trading firms in Hong Kong. By 1985, however, total Chinese-South Korea trade surpassed that between China and North Korea. During the 1980s, while the two sides still viewed one another as military adversaries, they increasingly recognized each other as economic opportunities. The beginnings of a diplomatic relationship also emerged in the 1990s with the establishment of trade offices between the Korea Trade Promotion Association (KOTRA) and the Chinese Chamber of Commerce in 1990, which facilitated shift from indirect trade to open and direct transactions, and subsequently in establishing formal diplomatic relations in August 1992. (3) South Koreas conscious policy of engagement to elicit cooperation from China, in particular using non-punitive, non-coercive diplomacy and seeking mutual accommodation. South Koreas engagement strategy contained the following tiers: first, economic linkages, investment and trade ties to increase the benefits to China of cooperation, and the costs of non-cooperation, providing foreign capital and technology, separating political cooperation with economics, but gradually produce cooperative behavior in other arenas. The growth of trade ties in the 1980s was a major reason why China chose to participate in the 1986 Asian Games and the 1988 Olympics hosted by South Korea, which served as key event to normalize relations. Second tenet of South Koreas engagement strategy was to treat the opposing states perspectives as legitimate per se. This meant engaging Chinas divergent position into official dialogues on the proposals for enhancing peace and stability in the region such as the Four-Party talks, and more importantly South Koreas recognition of One China Policy, acknowledging Beijing as the only legal government in China. These initiatives at the diplomatic front were followed by general increase in communication flows on the business, educational, and cultural levels to cultivate goodwill. In this context, South Koreas engagement strategy included the following goals: (1) cultivate Beijings cooperation by tying Chinese national interests to stability on the Peninsula; (2) improve South Koreas credibility in the international arena by enhancing its image as a regional player willing to reduce tensions and foster dialogue; and (3) engage North Korea through alternative channels. In order to pursue these goals, South Korea utilized the following means: in the macro-political perspective, the strategy of engagement of China was pursued through the policy of Nordpolitik and Globalization (segyehwa) which implied mutual economic prosperity as a means of expanding diplomatic ties with former adversaries as well as assuming a leading role for South Korea in international organizations and the continued expansion of program multi-directional diplomacy (i.e. using meetings of multilateral bodies such as APEC, ASEAN, non-governmental track-two diplomacy, high-level military excha nges). The second method of engagement has been sports diplomacy participating in athletic competitions hosted by each country provided a useful means by to express good will and interest in expanding the economic cooperation (Seoul 1988 Olympics, Beijing Asian Games 1990). What was the benchmark of success of South Koreas engagement strategy? The key was not only engaging China, but also the terms of policy toward North Korea. The following measure could be used: (A) Failure Chinese support of North Korea (B) Minimal Success 1.5 Korea policy; formal support of North Korea and de-facto recognition of South Korea (C) Moderate Success equidistance between North and South Korea (D) Very Successful discourage North Korean provocation and aggression (E) Most Successful China supports only South Korea Cha argues that the outcome of South Koreas engagement falls in the middle range (B to D). For example, Chinese behavior on the North Korean nuclear issue in 1993-94, when Beijing sided with the US and South Korea on many aspects (such as opposing North Korea to renege Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and abide to non-nuclear Peninsula), however, at the same time Beijing expressed strong opposition against any acts of coercion against the North. It persistently pressed for dialogue and negotiona as the only acceptable means of settling the dispute, and opposed any U.S. led sanctions thought the UN Security Council. A more successful outcome was the redefined Chinese behavior on UN admission of the two Koreas in 1991, in which Chinese accepted dual membership of the two Koreas in the UN. Arguing that South Korean engagement of China has been sustained, comprehensive and moderately successful, the next question is how this new relationship will affect security on the Korean Peninsula and throughout the broader region? Salient issues include the impact of the Asian financial crisis, the dynamics of second U.S.-North Korea nuclear crisis, the effect of Bejing-Seoul dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tente on South Koreas alliance with Washington, and the future challenges that could be posed by Korean unification. (1) The impact of the Asian Financial Crisis didnt affect China-South Korean relations thus far. In-fact, in 2003 China has surpassed the U.S. as South Koreas largest trading partner (2) Sino-South Korean relations have important implications in understanding current relations between North and South Korea. Under Kim Dae Jung, South Korea initiated Sunshine Policy that rests on Seouls assurances of no-isolation, no destabilization, and no absorption. The Sunshine Policy is in many ways similar to the engagement strategy toward China, both in form and potential success. In particular, it is consistent (despite Norths provocations) and designed to elicit cooperation from the opposing state. However, there are also differences- regarding intentions; for cooperation to emerge, the opposing state has to be engageable. North Koreas behavior does not suggest she is open to an improvement of relations. Second, there are differences in South Koreas capabilities of early 1990s and late 1990s, in particular, in the early 1990s South Korea that engaged China did so from a position of relative strength and prosperity; however, in the late 1990s, the Asian financial crisis put South Korean position to a relative weakness., because conciliatory gestures are more likely to be interpreted as appeasement rather than engagement. Hence success to engagement of North Korea is not likely. (3) Looking beyond the immediate North Korean nuclear problem, Korean unification raises a plethora of new factors that would test the resilience of China-South Korea engagement. The absence of the North Korean buffer would give rise to a situation in which two powers with different regimes share a contiguous border. Another future challenges is on the economic front the rising China may hange its trade needs and increase competition with Korea. A final potential conflict between a united Korea and China centers on nationalism, and the two-million ethnic Korean living in Chinese Jilin province, which a unified Korea might claim. In the final analysis, the dramatic transformation of Chin-South Korean relations in the 1990s represents the most successful case of engaging China in East Asia. The lessons stemming from this engagement include: (1) consistency- a policy can only be successful if it is applied consistently and deliberately, (2) engagement requires will and domestic political support to sustain the policy even in the face of little reciprocity by the other state; (3) engagement applied from a position of strength conveys credibility, but applied from a position of weakness connotes appeasement. For the foreseeable future, the burden of managing the confrontation on the Korean Peninsula falls even more on the new China-South Korea dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tente and the continuing U.S.-South Korea Alliance. My Observation: Victor Cha offers a plausible analysis of the South Koreas engagement strategy and the factors that have significantly improved Sino-South Korean relations, nonetheless, I would argue that he underestimated the historical factors that bind China and South Korea together, which might have accelerated the rapprochement on both sides. Traditionally, Korea has fallen under the Chinese sphere of influence, with Korea belonging to the first-tier state of the Sino-centered worldview. In this context, another traditional binding element is the continuing anti-Japanese sentiments and mistrust in both Koreas and China that target Japanese sense of irresponsibility and demand apology for its war atrocities. Taken together, I would argue that these factors also facilitated the relatively rapid transformation of the relations, on a personal level between Korean and Chinese officials. In the context of enhancing peace and security on the Korean Peninsula, positive Sino-South Korean relations certainly play an important role. Both states are aware of this factor, and share similar interests. However, Beijing seems to be in a dilemma, it desperately does not want to face a collapse of North Korea nor does it want to see a nuclear North Korea. Hence, Chinas actions in the foreign policy arena are still bound to the minimum necessary level to ensure stability. Ironically, while the Chinese officials have been claiming that they are making efforts to persuade North Korea to enter multilateral dialogue and negotiation, they also claim that North Korea doesnt listen as it used to. In this regard, my question is: How much leverage does China have over North Korea? 🙂 1 From the ROK perspective, during the Cold War China was part of the communist bloc, a patron of revolutionary regimes in Asia, and thus one of the primary threats to South Koreas survival. Chinas intervention in the Korean War in 1950, in conjunction with the July 1961 Friendship Treaty between China and North Korea with its automatic intervention clause cemented South Koreas perceptions of China as a threat. At the same time, Chinas hostility toward South Korea was equally intense. South Korea was the fascist axis of the iron triangle that included U.S. imperialism, and Japanese militarism.

Pride And Prejudice By Jane Au :: essays research papers

In the novel Pride and Prejudice, written by Jane Austen, several, if not all of her characters, can verify the idea that in order to achieve happiness one must abandon their pride and in turn, replace it with self-respect accompanied by some humility. In addition, tolerance and mutual respect must replace one’s prejudice. In the inception of the novel, the Bingley sisters, Caroline and Mrs. Hurst, exhibit their prejudice towards Jane because of their differences in social status. It is their pride that forces them to believe they are better than others solely because of the amount of money they have. It is their prejudice that causes them to earnestly avoid people of different social status and do everything their powers allow to ‘protecting’ family members such as Mr. Bingley from people of the lower class. Instead of realizing the love Mr. Bingley and Jane had towards each other, they allow their pride to blind them of the truth and foolishly assume that only a lady of equal status as theirs is ‘worthy’ of their brother’s love. To destroy any hopes Jane might entertain of marrying Mr. Bingley, the sisters connivingly convince her that that her love for Bingley is unrequited. They continue by saying that the marriage of Bingley to Miss Darcy, who will be â€Å"hereaf ter our [their] sister† will â€Å"secure the happiness of so many† people. But towards the end of the novel, even after all their efforts and hopes of separating the two, Jane and Bingley manage to get married. Miss Bingley and Mrs. Hurst are forced to swallow their pride and make amends with Jane because they know that if they didn’t, Mr. Bingley would never like them. The Bingley sisters displayed their tolerance and mutual respect towards Jane after the lower social class prejudice was removed. Caroline Bingley’s attempts to seek the affection of Mr. Darcy are another example of her lack of self-respect. Her excessive pride is evident in her confidence that Darcy â€Å"belongs† to her because of their similarities in social status. Her prejudice towards Elizabeth is evident in Caroline’s constant insults of her. She comments to Elizabeth that â€Å"Darcy is a gentleman† and is out of her league. Caroline foolishly believes that she can win Darcy’s affection by fawning over him. She fails to get Darcy’s affection because she does not have a genuine affection for him. She seeks only to ‘win’ him using her money and status in society.

Poverty Eradication Plan

The Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), Uganda’s equivalent of a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), serves as the country’s main development strategy and planning framework for fighting poverty. Government’s overriding aim as espoused in PEAP is reducing the total number of people living in absolute poverty to less than 10% of the population by 2017 (MFPED 2001). PRSPs are national planning frameworks for low-income countries.They are a requirement for all countries that would like to access concessional loans through the Poverty Reduction Growth Facility (PRGF) or to benefit from debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. They are also the main framework around which most bilateral donors are to build their cooperation (WHO 2004). Developed in 1997, prior to the advent of the PRSP initiative by the World Bank, PEAP is widely acknowledged to be a home-grown plan with clear national ownership and leadership.Since its formula tion, PEAP has undergone two rounds of revision. The first round of revision was in 1999/2000 and it gave rise to PEAP 2001. The second round was in 2002/2003 and gave rise to the PEAP 2004. PEAP 1997 was structured around four areas: a) macroeconomic policy, b) institutional framework for poverty eradication, c) policy framework to increase incomes of the poor, and d) measures to improve the quality of life of the poor (MFPED 1997).Following the introduction of the PRSP initiative, a mutual agreement was reached between the Government of Uganda and the World Bank to retain PEAP as Uganda’s PRSP with some improvements such as widening consultations on the plan and broadening its scope to include detailed diagnosis of poverty in the country. * What's New * Site Map * Site Index * Contact Us * Glossary ————————————————- Top of Form Bottom of Form * Home * About the IM F * Research * Country Info * News * Videos * Data and Statistics * Publications Uganda and the IMFSend your comments on PRSPs and IPRSPs to [email  protected] rg See also: Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs)Free Email NotificationReceive emails when we post new items of interest to you. Subscribe or Modify your profile| | | | Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Uganda's Poverty Eradication Action Plan Summary and Main Objectives Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development Kampala, Uganda March 24, 2000 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) are prepared by member countries in broad consultation with stakeholders and development partners, including the staffs of the World Bank and the IMF.Updated every three years with annual progress reports, they describe the country's macroeconomic, structural, and social policies in support of growth and poverty reduction, as well as associated external financing needs and major sources of financing. This country document is b eing made available on the IMF website by agreement with the member country as a service to users of the IMF website. | Use the free Adobe Acrobat Reader to view Annex Tables and Chart 1 (212 KB) Contents 1. Introduction Uganda's planning framework The revision of the PEAP2. National vision and overall goals   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Reducing bsolute income poverty: Raising educational achievement of Ugandans Improving the health of the people Giving voice to poor communities3. The Poverty Eradication Strategy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Creating a framework for economic growth and transformation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Good governance and security Actions which directly increase the ability of the poor to raise their incomes   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Actions which directly improve the quality of life of the poor4. Macroeconomic stability, medium- and long-term expenditure implications of the PEAP   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Macroeconomic stability and the macroeconomic framework   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Medium-Term Expenditure FrameworkU sing the PAF to prioritise public expenditure Poverty priorities and the PAF Additionality Accountability of PAF resources The overall allocation of expenditures within the MTEF   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Intermediate output targets in the medium-term Long-run targets and costings Long-run resource availability5. The Monitoring StrategyAnnex Table 1: Goals, targets and indicators in the PEAP 2000 Annex Table 2. 1. Uganda: Selected Economic and Financial Indicators, 1996/97–1999/2000 Annex Table 2. 2. Uganda: Fiscal Operations of the Central Government, 1996/97–2002/2003 Annex Table 2. . Uganda: Balance of Payments, 1996/97–2002/03 Annex Table 2. 4. Uganda: Monetary Survey, 2000–3 Annex Table 3: Summary of Medium-Term Expenditure Framework | Contents1. IntroductionThis paper is a synthesis of the main features of the Government of Uganda's Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP). The PEAP has guided the formulation of government policy since its inception in 1997, and is currently being revised. Under this plan, Uganda is being transformed into a modern economy in which people in all sectors can participate in economic growth.This implies a number of conditions: * The economy requires structural transformation, including the modernisation of agriculture, the development of industries which build on demand and supply linkages from agriculture, and continued institutional development in the legal and financial sectors. * Poor people must be able to participate in this growth, both by expanding smallholder agriculture and by increasing employment in industry and services. * Economic growth must be sustainable, high quality and broadly based. The non-material aspects of poverty must be addressed; participatory studies have shown that insecurity, illness, isolation, and disempowerment are as important to the poor as low incomes. Uganda's Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP) is established on four major pillars: * Creating a framework for economic g rowth and transformation * Ensuring good governance and security * Directly increasing the ability of the poor to raise their incomes * Directly increasing the quality of the life of the poor.The revision of the PEAP in 2000 draws on the progress made since 1997, including the development of sector-wide approaches, the participatory research carried out by the Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment Project (UPPAP), the constraints identified in the Poverty Status Report, and the development of costings of public actions and monitorable indicators in key, poverty-oriented sectors. It will also place a greater emphasis than the 1997 document on the actions which promote private sector development and therefore contribute indirectly to poverty-reduction. The revised PEAP is Uganda's Comprehensive Development Framework.Uganda's planning frameworkThere have been a number of initiatives to strengthen the planning process in recent years. This includes major consultative exercises concern ing Uganda's long term goals and objectives, such as Vision 2025, describing national aspirations, and the 1997 Poverty Eradication Action Plan as a national planning framework to guide detailed medium term sector plans, district plans, and the budget process. In turn, detailed sector-wide plans and investment programmes have reached varying stages of completion, set within an overall medium term expenditure framework.A programme of strengthening district capacity to prepare medium term expenditure frameworks is also underway. The modern approach to planning involves ensuring that the right framework has been established to enable effective programming, implementation and monitoring. Chart 1 describes the flows and relationships between different plan/policy processes in Uganda. The most important point to note is that these elements interact in an ongoing process. Uganda's over-arching national planning document is the Poverty Eradication Action Plan, signalling poverty eradication as the fundamental goal of the Government.Chart 1 shows the relations between the PEAP and other plans. The PEAP is not a blueprint for sector activities. It provides a framework for the development of detailed sector plans and investment programmes. Implementation of the PEAP demands sector-wide programming to determine sector objectives, outputs and outcomes expected from sector expenditures, and the activities which the expenditures will fund in order to achieve the desired outputs and outcomes. Quick guide to planning processes|   |Vision 2025:| an overview of long term goals and aspirations by the year 2025|   | The PEAP:| the national planning framework on which to develop detailed sector strategies|   | Sector Planning:| technical specifications of sector priorities, disciplined by hard budget constraints|   | District Planning:| implementation plans for sector strategies based on local priorities / needs|   | MTEF:| annual, rolling 3 year expenditure planning, set ting out the medium term expenditure priorities and hard budget constraints against which sector plans can be developed and refined|   |District MTEF:| setting out the medium term expenditure priorities and hard budget constraints Against which district plans can be developed and refined|   | Annual Budget ; District Budgets:  Ã‚  Ã‚  | annual implementation of the three year planning framework|   | Donor; NGO; private sector:| participating and sharing information / ideas in developing sector plans and budgets|   | Participatory processes:| bottom-up participation of districts in the planning and monitoring process, as well as participatory poverty assessments, providing essential feedback on progress towards poverty eradication goals| Thus the 1997 PEAP has guided the preparation of detailed sector plans. Capacity constraints within line ministries, which have been a serious limitation in sector planning, are being overcome by support from our donor and NGO communities i n a spirit of partnership and teamwork. In recent years, major advances have been recorded in production of the Ten Year Road Sector Development Programme, the Education Strategic Investment Plan and the Health Sector Plan, and the Plan for the Modernisation of Agriculture. Also underway are plans for the energy sector and the justice sector.Eventually all sectors will be covered by up-to-date, resource constrained sector plans and investment programmes which focus on achieving the goals of the PEAP. In turn, the PEAP and the sector plans set the framework for preparation of district plans (although these are still at an early stage of development). Under Uganda's decentralised system of governance, the local authorities are responsible for determining the implementation plan for sector programmes based on local priorities. Involvement of communities in the planning framework is also being strengthened.Under the Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment Project (UPPAP), the second pha se will include dissemination of the perspectives of the poor in order to help guide policy at both national and district levels, and there will be further work in nine pilot districts to enhance community-level participatory planning and monitoring capacities. It is important to note that the relationship between both the PEAP and sector plans, and between sector and district plans, and between district and lower local council plans, is an iterative one. The PEAP sets the framework for other plans, but is also a product of those plans.For example, the current PEAP revision reflects the policy statements made in various sector plans, and tries to balance the sector objectives within a national framework. In turn, revisions of sector plans should take note of national priorities and constraints as outlined in the PEAP in refining their own sector strategies. The National Planning Authority, according to its mandate in the Constitution, will have the role of ensuring that the differen t plans are consistent. The same principle applies to the relationship between sector and district plans.While medium term plans establish a policy framework and desired outputs and outcomes, they are meaningless unless disciplined by hard budget constraints. Therefore another critical element of the planning framework is the medium term expenditure framework (MTEF). Since 1992, MFPED has been developing an MTEF, which is presented to Cabinet as part of the annual â€Å"Budget Framework Paper† (BFP), covering three fiscal years. Preparation of the annual BFP includes detailed discussions with sector working groups each year to monitor performance of current programmes and projects.These discussions identify implementation bottlenecks, inefficiencies in existing operations, and potentially unsustainable imbalances in the size of the recurrent and development programmes. The discussions also take account of any upcoming policy initiatives in order to ensure that all new policie s are comprehensively costed to reveal the full extent of their fiscal implications, and in order to propose how the Government's expenditure programme can be adjusted in light of new policy priorities, both within and between sectors.The important point is that, in the medium term, public resources can be redeployed in accordance with changing strategic priorities; it only requires development of the capacity and willingness to reprioritise spending needs and reallocate expenditures in a disciplined way. More recently, there have been attempts to broaden the consultation of the BFP process by increased discussion with donors, especially on the sectoral priorities of Government expenditure and on the consistency of Government assumptions regarding external financing with actual donor financing plans.Steps are also being taken to involve civil society in the consultation process. An abbreviated version of the BFP (the version that goes to Cabinet before the expenditure allocations ar e approved by Cabinet) is published in the annual â€Å"Background to the Budget†, and a detailed summary of the composition of expenditure for all sectors for the three year MTEF is published as an appendix table in the Budget Speech document. In 1999, a start was made on extending the BFP process to the districts, when training workshops were organised for the local Governments.Technical expertise is being provided by the central ministries to help district administrations to prepare their own three year expenditure planning frameworks consistent with resource availability. Government hopes that in due course this capacity can be extended to lower level local councils. The final element of the planning framework is an assessment of the impact of plans and budgets on civil society and beneficiaries, shown at the bottom of Chart 1 as â€Å"civil society†.There are a variety of monitoring techniques, such as technical assessments of project/programme performance, statis tical surveys, and more participatory methods to complement the traditional household survey methods such as the Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment Project, which is attempting to bring the voice of the poor into national, district, and lower level planning. The results of monitoring activities provide feedback at all levels of the planning system.The revision of the PEAPWhile the basic principles behind the 1997 PEAP remain valid, there have been significant developments since its preparation both in outcomes—such as the huge increase in educational enrolments—and in the preparation of sectoral plans and the information available about poverty. Hence, to remain relevant, the plan has to be revised. It is envisaged that the revision of the PEAP will be a regular process carried out every two years, drawing on the results of the Poverty Status Report which will also be prepared every two years.Preparation of the revised PEAP remains a highly participatory process. Government recognises that the planning system does not consist of decision-making by a single institution at the centre. Rather, the system involves the interaction of a number of processes within an overall framework. As such, the process is much more dynamic and responsive to changes in policy priorities and/or resource constraints. The involvement of a much larger number of agencies in the planning process makes it important that planning linkages are clearly specified and understood.Substantial effort is being made to improve the partnership process in Uganda. As mentioned above, participatory approaches have increasingly been adopted both for sector plan preparation and monitoring and appraisal exercises. In revising the PEAP we have summarised and consolidated the results of previous consultations and research findings. The revised PEAP builds on an ongoing process of consultation. An initial â€Å"discussion draft† was circulated to a wide range of stakeholders to sti mulate dialogue and debate.Later drafts incorporate the results of this wide consultation. In order to ensure reasonable levels of participation in preparation of the revised PEAP, the editorial team prepared a Participatory Action Plan. This includes consultations at the central government level as well as with local governments, with donors, with Parliamentarians, and with civil society, as well as the development of adequate feedback mechanisms to ensure that all stakeholders have contributed effectively to the drafting process.General consultative workshops: the revision process includes two major consultative meetings involving wide representation of stakeholders (politicians; ministries; donors; NGOs; private sector; civil society; urban and local authority representatives, media). The objective of these workshops is to review current drafts and to provide detailed comments on policy issues arising from the drafts. Regional meetings for district officials: MFPED, working with the Ministry of Local Government, has already undertaken some regional work to explain the PEAP, UPPAP findings and budget issues.District officials will be presented with drafts of the revised PEAP at a series of regional workshops. As mentioned above, the CSO Task Force will also be promoting discussion of PEAP related issues within districts and communities. Donor consultations: in addition to participation in the general consultative workshops, the current draft has been presented at the Donor Consultative Group meetings in March 2000. Political consultation: In addition to attendance at the general consultative workshops, another meeting for members of all Parliamentary sessional committees was held in February 2000.This will be followed by further briefing sessions for specific sessional committees on issues relevant to their sector. Feedback mechanisms: It is very important to ensure that there is adequate time for written responses and contributions. Drafts have been widely circulated for the consultative workshops in February and April. There will be active follow-up, especially at the district level, to ensure that written responses are received from every district and sector ministry.Building on existing consultative processes: Issues raised during the revision process will not only be followed up at the general consultative meetings, but also raised through existing consultative fora (such as the sector working groups for the budget framework process; NGO consultative meetings; and regular donor meetings). Contents2. National vision and overall goalsPoverty has many dimensions including low and highly variable levels of income and consumption, physical insecurity, poor health, low levels of education, disempowerment, a heavy burden of work or unemployment, and isolation (both social and geographical).Drawing on recent evidence (including household surveys and the Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment Project), the PEAP highlights the many dimensi ons of poverty in the Ugandan context. It recognises the importance of increasing income to poor households, and places a high priority on eradicating income poverty. It also views ignorance as a particularly constraining feature of the lives of poor people, and is concerned to improve literacy and educational achievement among the population at large.Health is another central concern for the poor, and the Government has established clear goals for improving the health of Ugandans. It is essential that poor people have an effective voice in the design and implementation of public policy. The objective of the PEAP is to marshal public effort at improving these dimensions of household wellbeing. Reducing absolute income poverty:Income levels are low in Uganda, and large sections of its population are unable to buy the basic necessities of life—food, clothing, and shelter. Low incomes also lead to poor health and limited education. Consumption poverty levels are high.In 1997, 44 percent of the population was estimated to consume less than what is required to meet the basic needs of life. Low rates of economic growth, and the effects of civil disorder, are important historical factors causing poverty in Uganda. Incomes are also highly unequally distributed, which reduces the impact of economic growth on poverty reduction. At the level of the household, poverty is related to rural residence (specifically to living in the north or the east), to land shortage, to low levels of education, to being headed by a female widow or by someone old, and to limited access to markets.Unequal sharing of resources within the household reflects not only cultural factors but unequal access to education and physical assets such as land, in which women are disadvantaged. Poverty also reflects society-wide phenomena including insecurity, the quality of public services, the availability of productive employment, macroeconomic stability and the functioning of markets, health infor mation, and the technical information available throughout society. But there are clear signs of improvement: * The proportion of Ugandans in consumption poverty fell from 56 percent in 1992 to 44 percent in 1997. Average real household consumption rose by 17 percent over the period, and rose in every year (this is confirmed in the national accounts data). * The expenditures of the bottom 20 percent rose even more: those of the bottom 10 percent rose by 29 percent, and those of the of the next 10 percent by 23 percent over the period. * A major factor in the reduction of poverty was the benefit farmers gained from the increase in coffee prices, reflecting the combined effect of the boom in world coffee prices and the liberalisation policy, which passed the price increase on to farmers. There was no systematic trend in inequality in the 1990s. But although inequality is not definitely getting worse in Uganda, it would be desirable to reduce it. These data are encouraging: incomes are rising without a significant increase in inequality, and therefore poverty is falling. However, not all groups participated equally in the growth in incomes. Although poverty fell in all regions, average incomes grew faster in the regions which were initially better off. So although overall inequality did not increase, regional inequality increased significantly (Table 2. 1). Table 2. : Household consumption gains by region| | Region| Percentage of population in consumption poverty| Percentage growth in real consumption|    | 1992| 1997| 1992–1997| | Central| 45. 5| 27. 7| 21. 4| West| 52. 8| 42. 0| 15. 9| East| 59. 2| 54. 3| 11. 0| North| 71. 3| 58. 8| 14. 4| | The income group which benefited most dramatically was cash crop farmers, reflecting the increase in cash crop prices. Poverty in this group fell from 60 percent to 44 percent between 1992 and 1996 (Table 2. 2). Income poverty among food crop farmers remained largely unchanged (falling marginally from 64 percent to 62 percent).Table 2. 2 Household consumption gains by economic sector| | Sector of household head| Share of population (%)| Percentage of population in consumption poverty|    | 1992| 1996| 1992| 1996| | Food crop| 47. 2| 44. 2| 63. 7| 62. 2| Non-food cash crop| 23. 4| 26. 7| 60. 1| 43. 7| Manufacturing| 3. 7| 3. 3| 44. 8| 27. 4| Trade| 6. 7| 6. 9| 25. 9| 19. 4| Government services| 6. 8| 5. 5| 35. 0| 28. 0| Not working| 4. 3| 4. 9| 60. 2| 63. 4| | Participatory data from the UPPAP indicate that many communities consider that poverty is increasing. This probably reflects two differences from the household survey.First, the participatory assessment was confined to poor, mainly food-producing communities, which gained the least from recent improvements. And the perceptions of poor people covered in the UPPAP were probably based on a broader view of poverty, encompassing more than simply low income. The Government of Uganda considers that absolute poverty must be eradicated. It has set itself the objective of reducing the headcount of income poverty to 10 percent of the population by 2017. Raising educational achievement of UgandansThe PEAP aims to raise educational achievement of the Ugandan population, especially among children of poor households.The significance of education is that it increases incomes and economic growth, and it offers an intrinsic benefit in itself. In 1997, the policy of free education for four children in every family was introduced and primary enrolment increased enormously from 2. 6 million in 1996 to 6. 5 million currently. Almost three million children entered the schooling system and the gross enrolment rate, using school-based data, rose to 128 percent in 1997 and 145 percent in 1999. Participatory evidence clearly shows that this increase is greatly appreciated by poor people.These data show that the main issue in primary education is no longer increasing quantity, but maintaining quantity while enhancing quality. It is generall y agreed that the quality of education in Uganda declined seriously between the mid-1970s and the late 1980s, and the increased enrolment is now straining the system. While the 1998 National Integrity Survey found that 60 percent of parents were satisfied with the quality of their children's education, the UPPAP investigation found widespread concern with schooling quality among the poor communities contacted.This is borne out by more formal investigations of schooling quality. The heavily burdened primary schooling system cannot meet the immediate demands for classrooms, teachers, and teaching/learning materials. Educational policy thus faces two central challenges: first, how to keep the increased number of children in school: and secondly, how to ensure that quality is maintained and improved given the expansion in the system. Enrolment rates in secondary and tertiary education remain low, although they have increased in recent years.Total secondary enrolment rose from 336,022 in 1997 to 427,592 in 1999. The draft strategic plan for secondary education estimates that only 10 percent of the secondary school age population is in school and that only 6 percent of the poorest 25 percent complete secondary education whereas 22 percent of the best-off 25 percent do so. Whereas Uganda is now well ahead of most countries in Africa in primary education, it is behind the others in secondary education.Although current policy will be focussed on achieving sustainable universal primary education, the requirements of a growing modern economy will place increasing emphasis on secondary schooling, and such schooling is certain to figure prominently in future PEAP revisions. The Government of Uganda has achieved its objective of universal primary education. The challenge it now faces is to encourage children to remain in school, and to acquire relevant skills for adult life.This implies the following objectives: * Maintain universal primary school enrollment (including poor households) * Reduce drop out rates and raise completion rates * Raise the cognitive skills of primary school graduates (as reflected in results from the National Assessment of Progress in Education). Improving the health of the peopleLife expectancy in Uganda has been estimated at just 42 years in 1997 (World Development Indicators). This is exceptionally low, mainly because of the AIDS epidemic. Child mortality is high, though it fell significantly from 180 per thousand in 1989 to 147 in 1994.In addition to increasing mortality, illnesses such as AIDS and malaria incapacitate large numbers of people. Trends in AIDS incidence are presented in the Poverty Status Report; there is a marked fall in incidence in urban areas, where the range of prevalence rates in ante-natal clinic attenders in six urban centers fell from 12–28 percent in 1991 to 7–15 percent in 1997. In rural areas there is no clear trend. Illness is a dimension of poverty which affects all income groups in Uganda, although it affects the poor particularly badly.Health outcomes depend on at least six factors: incomes, education, information, health services, water supply and sanitation. Studies of household data in Uganda have shown that both education and specific information about the causes of illness significantly reduce child mortality. For instance, one study (using 1992 data) found that if a mother has good information about malaria and diarrhea, this reduces the under-five mortality of her children by 0. 045, compared with the overall mortality rate of 0. 18. The same study found that child mortality was much more strongly related to education than to incomes.Mothers in the top expenditure quartile had lost almost the same proportion of their children as mothers in the bottom expenditure quartile, but child mortality dropped at every level of maternal education and mothers with further education had only a quarter as high a rate of child mortality as mothers with no educatio n. More recent data suggests that the link between incomes and mortality has grown stronger (Table 2. 3). Between 1988 and 1995, while under-three mortality fell by 6 percentage points for the poorest 20 percent, it declined by almost 60 points for the richest quintile. Table 2. Under-three mortality by wealth quintile| | | 1988| 1995| | Poorest quintile| 188. 5| 182. 5| Second quintile| 163. 9| 154. 5| Third quintile| 184. 9| 168. 1| Fourth quintile| 180. 6| 134. 3| Richest quintile| 157. 6| 99. 7| | Source: Sahn et al (1999)| Adult mortality may be more powerfully affected than child mortality by income and access to curative services. The most commonly named consequence of poverty in the UPPAP study was ill health, and the third most commonly named was death. It may also be more powerfully affected by the presence of health services, especially for maternal mortality.In the case of AIDS, cultural factors interact with poverty. In some parts of the country, single women cannot get access to land; finding a partner then becomes a matter of survival and people in these circumstances take risks which they would otherwise avoid. A World Bank study has developed projections of under-five mortality in Uganda. Using international data, it has been shown that child mortality responds to the effects of technical progress in preventive and curative care over time, and to female education and income growth within the economy. Using relationships estimated using international data, the ollowing projections are derived: Table 2. 4: Projections of Child Mortality in Uganda, 2017| | | Child mortality in 1995:| 160. 2| | Child mortality in 2015:| | | assuming time trend alone assuming increased female education assuming female education and 3% per capita income growth assuming female education and 5% per capita income growth| 118. 9 117. 6 110. 2 85. 2| | | | These projections show that child mortality could be halved by the end of the period. However, there are three cavea ts: * the impact of female education may be underestimated, especially given UPE. AIDS will tend to increase child mortality more than these data suggest. * Most importantly, the best international performers—many of whom have been socialist countries such as China and Cuba—have achieved much faster improvements in health outcomes. It is important to recognize that energetic public action can produce very fast improvements in health even at low income levels, as the examples of China, Cuba and Sri Lanka show; Uganda's primary education enrolment, though not its health status, is now much better than most countries at its income level.The lessons suggested by these countries include the enormous importance of getting simple health messages out to the population, and the importance of community-level management using very cheap personnel sometimes known as `barefoot doctors'. The very strong emphasis on preventive health messages in the minimum package is an attempt to r eorientate the health system to maximize its effects on health outcomes. Improving the health of the Ugandan population is a priority objective of the Government of Uganda.The Health Sector Strategy sets targets of reducing child mortality from 147 to 103 per thousand, maternal mortality from 506 to 354 per 100,000, to reduce HIV prevalence by 35%, reducing the total fertility rate to 5. 4, and reducing stunting to 28% by 2004/5. Giving voice to poor communitiesPoor people suffer directly from being disempowered. Powerlessness, described as inability to affect things around one, was reflected in the findings of UPPAP. The National Integrity Survey also found that 40 percent of the users of public services had to pay bribes.Such experiences are not only materially impoverishing; they are also demoralising. More broadly, people experience frustration when they cannot perceive their influence over public policy. UPPAP reported, for instance, that poor people saw no effective mechanisms to hold service deliverers accountable. The Government of Uganda aims to implement further administrative and political reforms which will increase poor people's control over their own lives and the policies and services which affect them. Contents3.The Poverty Eradication StrategyThe overall poverty eradication strategy is based on the following principles: * The public sector's role is to intervene in areas where markets function poorly or would produce very inequitable outcomes. * Where the public sector intervenes, it should use the most cost-effective methods, including the use of NGOs for service delivery where appropriate. * Poverty-eradication is a partnership and should involve the closest possible integration of the efforts of government with its development partners. All government policies should reflect the importance of distributional considerations, of gender, of children's rights, and of environmental impacts. * Each area of public action will be guided by the formu lation of desired outcomes and the designs of inputs and outputs to promote them. Strategic public action for poverty eradication is established on four pillars: * creating a framework for economic growth and transformation; * good governance and security; * actions which directly increase the ability of the poor to raise their incomes; * actions which directly improve the quality of life of the poor.It is important to note that these four elements interact. For instance, although primary education is discussed under `quality of life', it also has implications for all the other three goals. The distinction between the goals helps to focus attention on the actions which most directly affect poverty, but the interactions between the objectives need to be borne in mind. Creating a framework for economic growth and transformation. Economic growth and employment-generation are necessary conditions for poverty-eradication.The PEAP must be based on an understanding of the growth potential of the Ugandan economy, and of the public interventions needed to achieve it. .Work at Uganda's Economic Policy Research Centre has projected the growth of incomes and investment over the next twenty years. The EPRC's model has three main components; an investment function, a balance-of-payments constraint, and a production function. Economic growth in the model is driven by three main factors; the accumulation of human and physical capital, and the shift of labour from agriculture to manufacturing, in which it is assumed to be more productive.Estimates of the coefficients are derived from a sixteen-country panel data set. The projections for Uganda include a low-case, based on existing trends, giving 5. 5–6. 5 percent annual growth in GDP over the period (giving a GDP per capita of $550 in constant prices in 2020). They also provide a high-case, based on an increase in the productivity of aid and the diversification of the productive structure. This yields 7–8 percent per annum growth, giving a GDP per capita of $700 in 2020. This model therefore gives potential annual per capita GDP growth of between 2. percent and 4 percent. A very recent study at the World Bank takes a larger cross section to explain why growth rates vary across countries, and focuses more on institutional determinants. It identifies a number of factors which constrain growth, and assesses by how much economic growth could be raised if Uganda could close the gap in these factors compared with average values for developing countries (controlling for income levels). Some factors (such as trade openness and macroeconomic stability) are already better than average, and cannot yield higher future growth.Uganda must maintain the good performance of these indicators. But others—closing the gap in educational attainment, deepening financial institutions, and improving property and contract rights—can yield significant gains. The study estimates such gains could produce an additional GDP annual growth per capita of 1. 7 percentage points. Mean per capita growth of 3. 2 percent per annum (which is what was achieved in the 1990s) could be raised to around 4. 9 percent (assuming no deterioration in the external terms of trade).This translates into a GDP growth rate of 7. 8 percent per annum. These studies show that GDP growth of the order of 7 percent per annum is feasible over the longer term in Uganda. But such economic growth will not be automatic. It will call for public action today to build the institutions needed for higher growth. Economic growth in Uganda requires a framework within which the private sector can expand. The first essential element is macroeconomic stability. Without this, economic growth will not be sustainable.The revised PEAP therefore includes a commitment to maintain macroeconomic discipline which has underpinned the fast economic growth of recent years. The second key element is setting appropriate macroeconomic incentive s. This involves economic openness, which encourages exports and labor-intensive investments. The future for Ugandan industry is not reliance on a wall of high tariff protection—which encourages capital-intensive investment which does little for employment—but open competition in a market which is being expanded by rising incomes from agricultural modernisation.Thirdly, the framework for economic development also includes the equitable and efficient collection and use of public resources. On the revenue side, independent research has shown that recent tax reforms, including the introduction of VAT have made the incidence of taxes more progressive. Local taxation, however, may need review in order to make it more progressive. The use of the savings made available by external debt relief for poverty-reducing purposes and the development of a sound strategy for external borrowing are essential.On the expenditure side, the Poverty Action Fund has been used to reallocate ex penditures to directly poverty-reducing services – primary education, primary health, agricultural extension, feeder roads. Equalisation grants are gradually being introduced; these are designed to make the delivery of services more equals across the country. The aim is that a poor woman in a remote rural area should be able to demand the same standard of service from the public sector as a man in the most affluent urban setting. The budgetary reform under the MTEF is central to implementing the PEAP.Finally, in order to promote economic transformation, the constraints on private sector competitiveness need to be removed. Surveys of business people in Uganda have shown that they face severe constraints on their operations. Infrastructure is a major constraint; firms' experience of power cuts significantly reduces their investment, and the development of internal markets is impeded by the limitations of the road network. Hence the sector-wide transport strategy and the ongoing process of utility reform are key.Another constraint is the difficulty that business people experience in enforcing contracts; this will be addressed by the programme of commercial justice reform which the government is beginning. The weakness of the financial sector is also a serious constraint. Reform of these sectors is essential for the development of the private sector. This is a poverty issue, because the expansion of formal employment is a central part of the strategy. A crucial component of the PEAP is accelerating economic growth. The actions outlined above can be expected to raise GDP growth performance to a potential as high as almost 5 percent per capita per year.Good governance and securityGood governance is increasingly recognised as a prerequisite to economic growth and development. In Uganda, consultations with the poor have shown that insecurity is among their most pressing concerns. Work by the Human Rights Commission, the Law and Order Sector Working Group and th e Governance Action Plan project has identified the main priority areas in this sector. Conflict resolution and effective support to conflict-afflicted areas are essential. Armed conflict has been a decisive factor in the impoverishment of the North and the East.In 1999 the internally displaced population of Uganda is estimated at 622,000, and in addition insecurity affects many people who are not actually displaced. So the successful resolution of conflicts is a necessary part of poverty-eradication. The democratisation of Uganda has been pursued in a context of decentralisation. The process involves the transfer of responsibilities to district level. Participatory work has shown that the most highly appreciated level is the Local Council 1 or Village Council (LC1), the level which is closest to the people.The implications of decentralisation for ministries of central government have been reflected in the government restructuring, but the extent to which they are now ready to fulfi l their new role needs to be assessed. Good governance involves making public expenditure transparent and efficient. Many reforms have been undertaken to make it harder to misuse public funds with impunity, including the establishment of the Ministry of Ethics and Integrity and the design of a new regulatory structure for procurement. Service delivery on the ground urgently needs improvement, as various surveys have shown.This is to be addressed by the introduction of results-orientated management, by pay reform designed to increase and simplify public sector remuneration, and by strengthening bottom-up accountability; communities must be able to hold service deliverers accountable through the Village Councils. Law and order is being addressed by the introduction of a sector-wide approach in which reforms proposed for the criminal justice sector will be costed. The poor reputation of the police needs to be addressed by an improvement in service delivery.The relatively good reputatio ns of LDUs and LC courts can be built upon. Public information is central to good governance and innovative methods of disseminating information should be explored by inter-sectoral cooperation. The special needs of the disabled require a community-based approach which deserves priority. Disaster management, which includes the handling of drought, floods, earthquakes and conflict, requires both preparedness and response; the recently established Ministry within the Prime Minister's Office has prepared a national strategy.Actions which directly increase the ability of the poor to raise their incomesRecent empirical work (mentioned above) has established that GDP growth rates of over 7 percent per annum are feasible for Uganda, providing the needed public actions are taken. What does such growth mean for household income and poverty? The Government has prepared projections for GDP growth and other key macroeconomic variables. The model forecasts real GDP and real per capita private co nsumption up to fiscal year 2019/20, on the basis of a national accounts format.In these scenarios private incomes grow less fast than Government income. As a result, private consumption growth is slower than GDP growth. In real terms, consumption per capita grows by 3. 2 percent per annum for the high projection and 2. 5 percent per annum for the low one. How much poverty reduction are such consumption growth rates likely to yield? Taking the structure and distribution of income (measured by household consumption) as given in the 1997 Poverty Monitoring Survey, an assessment can be made of the effect of such growth on income poverty.If we assume that every Ugandan household experiences per capita income growth of 3. 3 percent per annum, the income poverty headcount would fall to 10 percent by 2017. The MOFEP higher growth scenario (a growth of household consumption of 6. 2 percent per annum, or 3. 3 percent in per capita terms) is therefore consistent with the poverty goal of the P EAP, so long as such growth is distributionally neutral (all households benefit proportionately). Not all sectors, however, will experience such high growth. Taking past experience as a guide, a growth rate of 6. percent in aggregate consumption might involve agricultural incomes growing at only 4. 7 percent per annum (with services and manufacturing growth being respectively 7. 9 percent and 12. 4 percent). If households are locked in their sectors of employment (as reported in the 1997 household survey), those employed in agriculture would experience slower income growth. We estimate that in this limiting case, headcount poverty would only fall to 22 percent, even if aggregate household income growth were 6. 2 percent per annum. Low agricultural growth constrains the poverty reducing impact of economic growth.These conditional projections of potential poverty reduction under the Gvovernment's assumptions for economic growth highlight the need for more targeted interventions, the e ffect of which would be to accelerate the incomes of the poor directly. Two main lessons emerge: first, poverty reduction calls for higher agricultural growth rates; and non-farm employment must be increased in the rural areas where most poor people live. Most Ugandans are self-employed, mainly in agriculture. This gives the Plan for the Modernisation of Agriculture a central role in poverty-eradication.Despite the constraints of limited technology and market access, the potential of raising agricultural incomes is considerable. The PMA identifies six core areas for public action in agriculture: research and technology, advisory services, education for agriculture, access to rural finance, access to markets, and sustainable natural resource utilisation and management. Employment outside agriculture can be promoted by microfinance, advisory services, and vocational training. Feeder roads remain a central priority as in the 1997 PEAP, since when maintenance expenditure has tripled.Lab our-intensive methods have been found to be financially cheaper than other methods of road-building and will contribute to employment generation. Research on land shows considerable inequality, often resulting from administrative and political factors more than the operation of the market. The Land Act is designed to strengthen the land rights of the poor. Women's land rights need to be strengthened further; public sensitisation for the purpose of the Land Act is needed: a cost-effective structure for land administration is needed; and the Land Fund needs to be operationalised, targeting the landless poor.The restocking programme for rural livestock has the potential to reduce poverty by restoring economically valuable assets, provided mechanisms are identified to target the poor. The Government is establishing a new regulatory and supervisory structure for microfinance in order to increase poor people's access to financial services. The Government has withdrawn from the provision o f capital for credit but will still provide support for capacity-building. Publicly supported research is coordinated by NARO. Research is to be decentralised, and stakeholders are to be involved.The appropriate mix between national and international research needs consideration. The potential benefits of publicly provided advisory services vastly outweigh their costs. Strategy is now being reviewed. The advisory service must address issues relevant to poor farmers, using ideas developed by NGOs for low-input technologies which the poor can afford. The services need to address productivity-enhancing techniques for farmers at different levels of resources, drought-resistant crops where needed, nutritional issues, marketing, storage and processing, and soil-conservation.Livestock, fisheries and agroforestry will also be covered by the advisory services. The management of markets is a private sector role under the PMA. The public sector has a role in ensuring that market access is affo rdable for vendors, in improving access to market information throughout the country, and in formulating policy on genetic modification and on organic farming. Sustainable resource use will be promoted by raising awareness, including the encouragement of communal initiatives to protect common property resources.Forestry needs to be promoted by a mixture of public protection and investment in private forests. Valley dam schemes will be reviewed; this is an important priority for addressing the poverty of the Karimojong and the insecurity associated with cattle-rustling. Energy for the poor will be promoted by encouraging the use of more efficient cooking technologies and by smart subsidies for rural electrification, which will encourage entrepreneurs to invest in power infrastructure in rural growth centres.This will make it easier for the rural poor to have their output processed, increasing their effective access to the market; it will also enable more households to gain access to electricity in their homes. Actions which directly improve the quality of life of the poorHuman development outcomes in Uganda have been transformed by the introduction of free primary education for four children in each family, which has lead to a massive increase in enrolment. Primary education is a central element of the PEAP. Now that quantity has increased so much, quality is critical.Challenges include the implementation of low-cost classroom construction and the management of the gap between teachers and classrooms including the use of double shifts where appropriate, measures for bottom-up accountability, and the possibility of using school gardens to educate children about agriculture while also providing some food. In secondary education, a strategy is in draft. Targeting gifted children from poor backgrounds is a poverty issue. Health care is being coordinated by the new health strategic plan. At the heart of this is the minimum health package.Service delivery is being im proved by a number of mechanisms including better remuneration and training, better infrastructure, and better accountability to consumers through village health committees. The pro-poor implementation of cost-recovery will require the successful identification of targeting mechanisms, perhaps geographically based. AIDS and population growth raise cross-cutting issues. Water and sanitation are being supported by major public interventions, with communities paying a small proportion of the investment costs and being responsible for the maintenance of the facilities.Community sensitisation on water-borne disease and on the need for maintenance is therefore critical. Adult literacy is likely to be made an element of PAF from this year; its benefits are potentially very considerable, as literacy has been directly found to increase agricultural productivity and evidence suggests it will also influence health outcomes. Housing is a private sector responsibility, but the state can encourag e the availability of low-cost housing. Contents4.Macroeconomic stability, medium- and long-term expenditure implications of the PEAPMacroeconomic stability and the macroeconomic frameworkIn the medium term (three years), Government's strategy for fighting poverty is reflected in the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) and the expenditure priorities which are incorporated into the MTEF. The MTEF is itself fully integrated into a macroeconomic framework which is designed to ensure low inflation of no more than 5% and to support rapid broad based real GDP growth of 7% per annum. In the first year of the MTEF, 2000/01, inflation may be higher and growth lower than the medium term targets because of the lagged impact of the external terms of trade shock which Uganda suffered in 1999/2000). The exchange rate will continue to be market determined, with the Bank of Uganda intervening only to dampen excessive volatility in the exchange rate and to maintain net international reserves at a level which is consistent with the targets in the PRGF programme (these targets will be based on the objective of maintaining gross foreign reserves at a minimum of ive months of imports of goods and non factor services). Macroeconomic policy will be accompanied by a deepening of structural reforms in key areas including the banking and financial system, public utilities and the transport infrastructure, which are aimed at removing key constraints to private sector growth, and reforms to improve the efficiency and quality of public services. The key linkages between the MTEF and the macroeconomic framework are via the domestic borrowing requirement and the projected net inflows of external financing.The MTEF is consistent with both the levels of donor support projected over the medium term, relatively conservative projections of domestic revenue mobilisation and domestic bank borrowing which is consistent with the monetary objectives discussed in the next paragraph. The increased expenditures on programmes and projects specifically targeted on poverty reduction (for example, expenditures under the Poverty Action Fund (PAF) are projected to increase from 2. 9% of GDP in 1998/99 to 4. 6% of GDP in 2000/01) are fully consistent with the Government's macroeconomic objectives.Increased expenditures on the PAF will be funded by increased donor support, including debt relief made available under the enhanced HIPC initiative, and by restraint in the growth of non priority expenditures. The overall fiscal deficit, excluding grants, is projected to rise from the programmed 8. 1% of GDP in 1999/2000 to 9. 7% of GDP in 2000/01, before declining to 8. 7% and 8. 2% of GDP in 2001/02 and 2002/03 respectively. Donor support, net of external amortisation, is projected at 10. 4%, 10. 1% and 9. % of GDP respectively in 2000/01, 2001/02 and 2002/03, and will therefore more than cover the projected fiscal deficits, allowing Government to accumulate savings with the domestic ban king system and the non bank private sector. Annex Table 2. 1 refers. The medium term monetary objectives are to maintain a rate of growth of broad money (M2) of 15% per annum which is required to hold core inflation (which excludes food crop and fuel prices) to no more than 5% per annum. This rate of money supply growth is consistent with the projected increase in money demand given projected growth of nominal GDP (averaging 12. % per annum) and a decline in the velocity of circulation of circulation of an average of 2. 2% per annum. Private sector credit is projected to expand by 15% per annum in nominal terms. This will allow private sector credit to gradually increase as a share of GDP. The growth in the net foreign assets of the Bank of Uganda will be determined primarily by the objective of maintaining gross foreign reserves at a minimum of five months of imports. Consistent with these objectives, Government is projected to accumulate savings in the domestic banking system of Shs 14 billion (0. 14% of GDP) in 2000/01, Shs 89 billion (0. 1% of GDP) in 2001/02 and Shs 95 billion (0. 77% of GDP) in 2002/03. Annex Table 2. 4 refers. The trade deficit (denominated in dollars) is projected to widen in 2000/01 because of the impact of the external terms of trade shock, which will depress export earnings. However the increase in the trade deficit will be largely offset by the projected rise in official and private transfers. As a percentage of GDP, the current account deficit (including transfers and FDI) will rise from the outturn of 4. 1% in 1998/99 to a projected 4. 6% of GDP in 2000/01, before declining to 3. 8% and 3. % of GDP in the following two years. The capital account is projected to remain in surplus, which together with the debt relief provided under the HIPC and enhanced HIPC initiatives, will enable the Bank of Uganda to accumulate net international reserves of $58 million in 2000/01, $108 million in 2001/02, and $116 million in 2002/03. This is s ufficient to maintain gross reserves at the target level of five months of imports of goods and non factor services. Annex Table 2. 3 refers. Annex Table 2. 1 summarises projected investment and savings. Public investment is projected at 7. 4% of GDP in 1999/2000 and 7. %, 7. 3% and 7. 0% in the next three years. Public savings are projected at 5. 1% of GDP in 1999/2000 and 5. 0%, 5. 0% and 4. 7% in the next three years. Private investment is projected at 10. 3% of GDP in 1999/2000, rising to 10. 5%, 12. 8% and 12. 9% in the next three years. Finally, private savings are projected to fall to 8. 1% of GDP in 1999/2000, recovering to 8. 7%, 11. 2% and 11. 5% in the next three years. The Medium-Term Expenditure FrameworkThose aspects of the PEAP which have implications for public expenditure will be implemented through the medium-term expenditure framework.This framework is presented to Cabinet as part of the annual â€Å"Budget Framework Paper (BFP)†, covering three fiscal year s. The objective of the MTEF is the design of all public expenditure by a clear analysis of the link between inputs, outputs and outcomes, in a framework which ensures consistency of sectoral expenditure levels with the overall resource constraint in order to ensure macroeconomic stability and to maximise the efficiency of public expenditure in attaining predetermined utcomes. Ultimately, these medium-term objectives need to be consistent with the longer-term objectives defined by the PEAP; so the PEAP will be used to guide reallocations of expenditure. The sectoral implications of the PEAP objectives are reflected in the design of sectoral strategies which in turn guide the expenditure allocations made each year under the MTEF. The MTEF is intended to guide all public expenditure including the use of resources committed by donors.For this reason, the Government is introducing a sector-wide approach wherever feasible, under which government and donors contribute to a common pool of resources used to achieve the sectoral objectives. The flexibility which this arrangement allows is essential to the efficient use of public expenditure,. because only in a sector-wide approach can the overall implications of a national programme within each sector be considered, and because a sector-wide approach can reduce duplications of effort by different projects and divergences of cost structure between projects and other public activities.Using the PAF to prioritise public expenditureThe PEAP of 1997 drew particular attention to the need for increased expenditure on the delivery of those services which directly benefit the poor. It was recognised that in Uganda, as in most other countries, there could be a tendency to neglect the interests of the poor unless a conscious effort was made; this is one implication of the observation that powerlessness is one aspect of poverty. Since 1997, the institution of the Poverty Action Fund has been used to achieve the planned reallocatio ns.The PAF has three essential elements for this objective. First, no expenditure is included in PAF unless its direct poverty benefits are clearly demonstrated. Secondly, the use of funds in the PAF is subject to particularly stringent monitoring procedures in which civil society actively participates. Thirdly, the use of funds for PAF activities is clearly additional to the levels achieved in the 1997/8 budget. Most of the areas included in the PAF consist of service delivery which directly benefits poor people, rather than administration.In order to achieve the increase in spending on service delivery and on infrastructure, it is necessary to keep administration lean. Government will continue to endeavour to make its administrative elements as lean as possible and to avoid the proliferation of administrative structures which can impose serious fiscal costs. Poverty priorities and the PAF The PAF (summarised in Table 4. 1) includes the most high-priority public expenditures from t he poverty-eradication perspective.Inclusion of a particular sector or programme in the PAF is justified by the high economic and/or social returns to the form of expenditure, by the fact that a substantial proportion of the benefits of expenditure in that area are received by the poor, and by the priority which participatory work has shown the poor themselves attach to that area. Areas already included in the PAF include rural roads, agricultural extension, primary health, primary education, water supply, and equalisation grants whose purpose (defined in the Constitution) is to make the quality of service del